Gunnar Breivik

• Weldemariam, Hailemariam; Chegeni, Razieh; Pallesen, Ståle; Breivik, Gunnar; Loland, Sigmund & Sagoe, Dominic (2026). The social perception of performance enhancement and body modification: A systematic review and meta-analysis on anabolic steroids, tattoos, and cosmetic surgery. Acta Psychologica. ISSN 0001-6918. 263. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106240. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  To our knowledge, few studies have attempted to explore the social perception of targets engaged in performance enhancement and body modification, and none has done so through a systematic review and meta-analysis. We conducted a meta-analysis on the social perception of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS), tattoo, and cosmetic surgery targets. Eligible experimental studies were identified through electronic database and ad hoc searches up to July 2025. We estimated effect sizes, in terms of the standardized mean difference, for the social perception ratings of the targets involved in the abovementioned practices on demographic, health, and psychosocial factors. Results from 34 studies with 9114 participants on AAS, tattoo, and cosmetic surgery were analyzed. Regarding performance enhancement, observers perceived the AAS (vs. no-AAS) target as less likely to display instrumental aggression, but having higher reactive aggression, lower sportspersonship, higher neuroticism, and lower agreeableness. Regarding body modification, the tattoo (vs. no-tattoo) target was perceived as more artistic, yet of a lower socioeconomic status, more offender typical and reoffend likely, and having lower hireability and competence. Furthermore, the cosmetic surgery (vs. no-cosmetic surgery) target was perceived as more attractive, approachable, trustworthy, and healthier, but also as less competent. Overall, observers show mixed perception of performance enhancement and body modification targets. The strong negative perceptions on competence, criminality, personality, and sportspersonship—especially considering the enhancement and modification overlap—highlight the extent of stigmatizing evaluation associated with these practices behaviours. Preventive, therapeutic, and occupational interventions may benefit from adjusting for the identified social perceptions.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2025). Smerte, risiko og glød i friluftsliv: Pedagogiske og etiske refleksjoner. In Loland, Sigmund & Sæle, Ove Olsen (Ed.), Å løpe en risiko: Etiske refleksjoner om å lede praksis i kroppsøving, idrett og friluftsliv. Fagbokforlaget. ISSN 9788245047844. p. 197–222. doi: 10.55669/oa610708. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  I ethvert menneskelig møte står noe etisk på spill. Lærere, trenere og veiledere i profesjonsfag som kroppsøving, friluftsliv og idrettsfag i skolen, eller i friluftsliv og organisert idrett på fritiden, møter stadig krevende etiske spenninger og dilemmaer de må ta stilling til. Denne antologien, med tittelen Å løpe en risiko – etiske refleksjoner om å lede praksis i kroppsøving, idrett og friluftsliv, har en bred faglig profil, der forskere fra ulike høyskoler og universiteter i Norge bidrar med sine perspektiver. Det finnes få publikasjoner i Norge som tar opp etiske refleksjoner knyttet til ledelse i disse praksisfeltene, selv om tematikken er svært aktuell. Det er fjorten kapitler i antologien med ulike tematiske vinklinger. De samler seg rundt tre hovedoverskrifter: verdibasert ledelse, kroppsyn og inkludering. I første del, «Å våge verdibasert ledelse», diskuteres sirkusbarn i tidligere norsk idrettshistorie, fotball og bærekraftsprinsipper i kroppsøvingsfaget, samt etiske dilemmaer blant idrettstrenere. I andre del, «Å våge å stole på kroppen», belyses etiske utfordringer knyttet til bruk av kroppsnær teknologi i trening, kroppsbildeproblematikk i kroppsøvingsfaget og verdien av pedagogisk tilrettelagt risiko i friluftslivet. I siste del, «Å våge å inkludere alle», drøfter forfatterne transkjønnede elevers erfaringer i kroppsøvingsfaget, bruk av crossfit-inspirerte aktiviteter i skolen, likhetsprinsippet i organisert idrett, rollekonflikter i ungdomsidrett og idrettslags håndtering av økonomi som barriere for idrettsdeltakelse. Kapittelbidragene har sitt utgangspunkt i ulike fag- og forskningsområder. Noen kapitler har en teoretisk orientering, mens andre bygger på empiriske undersøkelser. Antologiens målgruppe er studenter i høyere utdanning, fagkolleger og forskere på området.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2024). The role of risk in nature sports. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. 51(2), p. 253–266. doi: 10.1080/00948705.2024.2309561. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In this article, I will examine the role of risk in the risky nature sports. Risky nature sports are identified as nature sports where participants may reckon with the possibility of severe injury or death if things go wrong. The first part of the article identifies some evolutionary, historical, and conceptual characteristics of nature sports and risk. In the second part of the article, I discuss the concept of risk and its meaning in risky nature sports. Additionally, I address questions concerning the moral tone and context of risk-taking. In most academic disciplines, risk is typically understood as something negative that should always be avoided. But risk also includes positive possibilities, which may, such as in risk sports, outweigh the negative or can even be inherently positive and a value in itself. In the third part, I discuss how important risk is in nature sports. Is it a defining core or more peripheral? This leads to the question of the value. Does the risk element add to the value of the sport? I finally discuss how risk sports can be meaningful parts of the participants’ lives.

• Breivik, Gunnar; Sagoe, Dominic & Loland, Sigmund (2022). Personality and willingness towards performance enhancement and body modification: A cross-sectional survey of a nationally representative sample of Norwegians. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 4. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2022.906634. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We conducted an exploratory investigation of the relationship between personality and willingness towards performance enhancement and body modification in Norway. The study is based on Norwegian Monitor data from a cross-sectional survey of a nationally representative sample of 4,233 (females: 49.9%) persons aged 15 to 96 (45.92 ± 18.02) years. Data were collected using a questionnaire containing demographic questions and measures of physical appearance satisfaction, physical activity level, personality (five-factor model), and willingness towards performance enhancement (e.g., substances that improve creative thinking) and body modification (e.g., use of muscle-building substances). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and multiple regression analyses. We found that 62.2% and 50.1% of our sample were either willing to use or contemplating using substances that reduce memory failure and enhance physical fitness respectively. Our sample was most willing or contemplating tattooing (30.0%) and generally skeptical of the other body modification methods with willingness to use or contemplating using substances to enhance muscularity least accepted (3.9%). Higher fantasy/openness and lower agreeableness were associated with higher willingness towards both performance enhancement and body modification. Additionally, higher extraversion and lower control/conscientiousness predicted higher willingness towards body modification. Our findings corroborate previous indications that performance enhancement and body modification are now mainstream. They also underline the importance of personality traits in willingness towards these practices.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2021). Sport as part of a meaningful life. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. doi: 10.1080/00948705.2021.1972814. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  My purpose in this article is to raise the problem of meaning in sport. The problem has two aspects. One is whether sport has any meaning in itself. The other is about how sport can be a part of a meaningful life. While I touch upon the first problem, my discussion’s main thrust is about the second aspect. I start with clarifying the notion of ‘meaning’, the possible sources of meaning, and the idea of ‘leading a meaningful life’. I distinguish between two views, the existentialist notion of meaning as created and the metaphysical view that meaning is something we find. I then look at the relation between meaning and value. I argue that while value is characterized by showing an internal unity in complexity, meaning is characterized by connecting elements into a pattern with a goal. I then ask if meaning can stand on its own legs and how value can ground meaning? I then show how people can integrate sports in their lives to lead more well-balanced and meaningful lives. I end by discussing some parallels between the debate about meaning in sport and the discussion of the moral character of sport.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2020). ‘Richness in Ends, Simpleness in Means!’ on Arne Naess’s Version of Deep Ecological Friluftsliv and Its Implications for Outdoor Activities. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. 14(2020). doi: 10.1080/17511321.2020.1789719. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The increasing global warming and the loss of biodiversity should concern us all. Some feel that outdoor activities, which take place in natural surroundings, should have a special obligation to change. In this article I present an example of what an outdoor life practice that responds to the ecological crisis could look like. I use the simple Norwegian outdoor life called friluftsliv, and the deep ecological version suggested by philosopher and climber Arne Næss (1912–2009) as an example and case. Naessian friluftsliv is interesting and relevant in three ways. First, Naess gave a philosophical basis for friluftsliv, building on deep ecology and Spinozism. Second, he presented content, norms and guidelines for a deep ecological friluftsliv. And third, he gave examples of such friluftsliv through his own practice of simple life in nature. Naess thus presents a radical alternative to present-day resource-consuming and specialized outdoor activities and nature sports. Finally, Naess’s version of deep ecological friluftsliv is discussed in relation to alternative theoretical approaches and to critical questions concerning friluftsliv as practice.

• Aggerholm, Kenneth & Breivik, Gunnar (2020). Being, having and belonging: values and ways of engaging in sport. Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics. ISSN 1743-0437. doi: 10.1080/17430437.2020.1734562. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This article presents an analytical framework for understanding and studying the value structures that govern participation in sport. We combine insights from a Norwegian Monitor survey with existential philosophical reasoning to present an empirically based value structure and discern three fundamental ways of engaging in sport: being, having and belonging. We argue that distinguishing between these modes of engagement can contribute to describing, analysing and navigating in the variety of ways that participants engage in sport. Using friluftsliv and football as illustrative cases, we analyse how these existential dimensions can be prevalent in different forms of participation. Towards the end of the article, we discuss the strengths and weaknesses of our approach, and how the existential dimensions may relate and intertwine in practice.

• Breivik, Gunnar; Sand, Trond Svela & Sookermany, Anders McDonald (2020). Risk-taking attitudes and behaviors in the Norwegian population: the influence of personality and background factors. Journal of Risk Research. ISSN 1366-9877. doi: 10.1080/13669877.2020.1750455. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The article presents the results of an investigation where the main purpose was to see how willingness to take risks is distributed in the general adult population relative to socio-demographic background and personality. A representative sample (n = 1000) of the population 15 years and older was interviewed about socio-demographic background, personality type (Big Five, EPQ, Sensation Seeking) and willingness to take risks. We used a new scale containing eight dimensions, covering social, intellectual, achievement, political, economic, physical, ethical and existential types of risk. The results showed that people in general were risk averse in relation to physical, ethical, economic and existential risks but had a balanced bell-shaped distribution of scores on the other risk dimensions. There was a moderate to low positive correlation between all eight risk-taking dimensions except achievement risk versus ethical risk. Males were more willing to take risks than females on six of eight dimensions. Younger were more willing than older to take risks on all eight risk dimensions. Higher educational level influenced risk-taking positively in more than half of the dimensions, not only one’s own educational level but also father’s and even more mother’s educational level. There was a positive correlation with household income on three dimensions. All sensation seeking subscales and total sensation seeking correlated positively with all risk-taking dimensions. There were positive correlations with most risk-taking scales on EPQ’s Extraversion and Psychoticism and Big Five’s Extraversion, Stableness and Openness. Agreeableness and Conscientiousness had negative correlation with several risk-taking dimensions. A logistic regression model, identifying the 25 percent highest scorers on total risk-taking, found that being male and scoring high on sensation seeking were the most important predictors. Furthermore, high scores on the Big Five sub-scales Extraversion and Openness, as well as the Eysenck EPQ sub-scales Extraversion and Psychoticism predicted high willingness to take risks.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2019). From ‘philosophy of sport’ to ‘philosophies of sports’? History, identity and diversification of sport philosophy. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. 46(3), p. 301–320. doi: 10.1080/00948705.2019.1660882. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  My goal in this article is to give a portrait of how modern sport philosophy, which started in 1972, developed from relatively narrow paradigmatic borders to become a diverse and multi-paradigmatic international discipline. This development has included several changes but also some continuity. I identify three main tenets that may be viable in the future. One is to focus on the traditional sport philosophical paradigm, which had an ambition to identify the essence of sport. A second option is to develop more specific approaches, focusing on single sports or types of sport, like football or climbing. A third alternative is to develop a philosophy, not only of sport but of ‘homo movens’, studying the moving human being in different environmental and socio-cultural contexts. All three options are viable and should be welcomed.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2019). What would a deep ecological sport look like? The example of Arne Naess. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. 46(1), p. 63–81. doi: 10.1080/00948705.2019.1566003. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Since the 1960s environmental problems have increasingly been on the agenda in Western countries. Global warming and climate change have increased concerns among scientists, politicians and the general population. While both elite sport and mass sport are part of the consumer culture that leads to ecological problems, sport philosophers, with few exceptions, have not discussed what an ecologically acceptable sport would look like. My goal in this article is to present a radical model of ecological sport based on Arne Naess’s version of deep ecology called ecosophyT. After outlining the Naessian ecocentric view of biospheric egalitarianism I present the consequences for sport and physical activities. I also give examples from Arne Naess’s own practice of sport which was guided by the principle ‘Richness in ends, simplicity in means!’ I discuss whether Naessian deep ecological sport is what we will all end up with after the ecocatastrophe or whether it can be an inspiring ideal for many of us right now.

• Breivik, Gunnar; Sand, Trond Svela & Sookermany, Anders McDonald (2019). Risk-Taking and Sensation Seeking in Military Contexts: A Literature Review. Sage Open. 9(1), p. 1–13. doi: 10.1177/2158244018824498. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The article is based on a literature review of studies covering risk-taking and sensation seeking within military contexts over a time span of 3 decades from 1983 to 2015. Literature was gathered through a four-stage search procedure identifying 25 studies of risk-taking and 16 studies of sensation seeking altogether. Because warfare and military conflicts are dangerous and risky pursuits, one could imagine there being a lot of empirical research about risk-taking and sensation seeking in the military. We have found this not to be the case. The research is both small in volume and scattered when it comes to use of theories, methods, and samples of military personnel. In general, there seem to be few clear research paradigms. The results of the empirical studies show that there are adaptive as well as nonadaptive forms of risk-taking in relation to military situations. Similarly, military personnel scoring high on sensation seeking possess certain advantages, for instance, dealing with stress and risk, yet may also cause problems of various kinds. The review ends by pointing out implications for research and practice.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2019). The Sporting Exploration of the World; Toward a Fundamental Ontology of the Sporting Human Being. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. 14(2), p. 146–162. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2019.1572214. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  My perspective in this paper is to look at sport and other physical activities as a way of exploring and experimenting with the environing world. The human being is basically the homo movens – born to move. Furthermore, the homo movens is the homo ludens – an active and playful being that explores the world in different ways and in a variety of environments. The ludic exploration of the world starts with children’s play and goes all the way up to full-blown versions of rule-based sports, then on to various physical activities into old age. My point of departure is Heidegger’s notion of being-in-the-world which suggests that humans are never isolated individuals but are always in a deep way connected with a ‘world’. The ‘world’ of sport comes in different versions. By use of a phenomenological approach I try to show that the sporting exploration of the world takes place in four ontologically different dimensions or ‘worlds’. Here I distinguish between individual sports, encounter sports, team sports and nature sports, and I argue that the I-Me, I-You, I-Society and I-Nature relations that are exemplified in these four types of sports have different ontological characteristics. While the discussion is inspired by Heidegger’s ideas I argue that the ways of ‘worldmaking’ in sport are more ontologically diverse than Heidegger opened up for. Heidegger described the relation of Dasein to itself and to other human beings and argued that we deal with the environment in a practical and a theoretical mode. I expand on this and present a more coherent picture of four different dimensions in the human being’s sporting exploration of the world.

• Birch, Jens; Moe, Vegard Fusche & Breivik, Gunnar (2019). Knowledge, Consciousness, and Sporting Skills. In Cappuccio, Massimiliano L. (Eds.), Handbook of Embodied Cognition and Sport Psychology. MIT Press. ISSN 9780262348171. p. 223–245. Full text in Research Archive
• Sand, Trond Svela; Breivik, Gunnar & Sookermany, Anders McDonald (2018). Risk-taking attitudes in the Norwegian population. Implications for recruitment into the Armed Forces. Res Militaris. 8(2). Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The presence of risks is a crucial and unavoidable feature of many military contexts and should be recognized by the military in recruitment and skill acquisition. Moreover, the military system is part of the society at large and thus influenced by the general values and norms that exists. This is particularly the case in Norway, one of the few countries left with compulsory military service and the only NATO country with female conscription. The article examines risk-taking attitudes in eight dimensions (ethical, existential, financial, intellectual, performance-related, physical, political, and social) in a representative sample (n=1,000) of the Norwegian population. While significant main effects were found for both gender and age, no differences were revealed among the youngest women and men (age 15-24). The results are discussed in relation to potential implications for recruitment into the Armed Forces.

• Breivik, Gunnar; Sand, Trond Svela & Sookermany, Anders McDonald (2017). Sensation seeking and risk-taking in the Norwegian population. Personality and Individual Differences. ISSN 0191-8869. 119, p. 266–272. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2017.07.039. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The article is based on a comprehensive study of the relation between sensation seeking and various forms of risk-taking in a representative sample of the adult Norwegian population, aged 15 years and above (N = 1000). The study included social, intellectual, financial, achievement-related, political, physical, ethical and existential risktaking dimensions. There was an expected main effect for age as well as gender on total sensation seeking, but no main effect for social class. All sensation seeking scales correlated positively with all the risk dimensions, although moderately for most scales. Physical risk had the highest correlation scores. The study found that altogether 21, 2% of the general population had been involved in risky activities during their life and had elevated scores on sensation seeking. A relatively high percentage of the population would be willing to be involved in risky sports (35,7%), risky jobs (54,8%) or risky military operations (25,9%), provided they were in good shape and of the right age. Those who were willing had higher sensation seeking scores. Only 16,9% of the population thought basejumping or other risk sports should be prohibited. The prohibitionists had lower sensation seeking scores than the non-prohibitionists.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2017). Searle, Merleau-Ponty, Rizzolatti – three perspectives on Intentionality and action in sport. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. 44(2), p. 199–212. doi: 10.1080/00948705.2017.1302802. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Actions in sport are intentional in character. They are directed at and are about something. This understanding of intentional action is common in continental as well as analytic philosophy. In sport philosophy, intentionality has received relatively little attention, but has more recently come on the agenda. In addition to what we can call ‘action intentionality,’ studied by philosophers like Searle, the phenomenological approach forwarded by Merleau-Ponty has opened up for a concept of ‘motor intentionality,’ which means a basic bodily attention and relatedness to the surrounding world. This conception is very relevant for the study of bodily actions as we find them in sports. However, there may be even deeper layers. The identification of mirror neurons in the brain has opened up for a type of almost ‘muscular intentionality’ whereby a simple bodily movement like grasping a cup to drink seems to be intentionally controlled and orchestrated. My goal in this paper is to discuss the relation between different levels of intentionality, such as a) ‘action intentionality’ operating at a conscious cognitive level, as for instance, when a player shoots a goal in football, b) the ‘motor intentionality’ directing the bodily movements when kicking the ball, and c) the muscular ‘mirror neuron intentionality’ of the goal keeper which is in operation when the keeper is seeing how the kicker’s foot hits the ball. How are these different layers of intentionality related and how can they give a more nuanced and integrated picture of the body–mind in action in sports?

• Breivik, Gunnar (2017). Intentionality and Action in Sport: A Discussion of the Views of Searle and Dreyfus. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. 12(2), p. 133–148. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2017.1332677. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The article looks at sport as a form of human action where the participants display various forms of Intentionality. Intentionality may be defined as ‘that property of many mental states and events by which they are directed at or about or of objects and states of affairs in the world.’ Sporting actions are about human intentions, beliefs, desires, perceptions and not to forget, movements. This means that sports typically display what we call ‘Intentionality.’ The study of Intentionality and intentional actions has previously received relatively little attention among sport philosophers, but deserves more attention. Even though there is a tension and several differences between continental and analytical approaches to philosophical problems, there is a common understanding of the phenomenon we call ‘Intentionality.’ The debate between John Searle, representing the analytical camp, and Hubert Dreyfus, representing the phenomenological camp, is instructive to see the differences, and also the commonalities between the two approaches. The article starts with a clarification of the concept of Intentionality and sketches some of the history and background of the concept. It then presents the main conceptual framework that Searle uses to distinguish the different types and forms of Intentionality and his views on sporting actions. This is followed by a presentation of the phenomenological approach of Dreyfus and the response by Searle. The article ends by discussing the possibility of a combined and enriched view where a clarification of the logic as well as the phenomenology of sporting actions is needed. It may thus be possible to bridge the gap between the two approaches.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2016). Academic versus Sporting Knowledge. Robert L. Simon and the Debate about Sports on Campus. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. 43(1), p. 61–74. doi: 10.1080/00948705.2015.1112241. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Robert L. Simon is a sport philosopher with many interests. He is not only interested in advanced theoretical matters but in seemingly mundane affairs, such as the question about the role of sports on campus. The question may seem trivial, but it has implications not only for how we view sports and higher education, but also for how we value different forms of knowledge, relating to body as well as mind. Simon has written about sports on campus in several publications. He discussed intercollegiate athletics in the article ‘Does athletics undermine academics? Examining some issues’ in 2008. But the topic was already present as a chapter in the first edition of the Fair Play book in 1991, and then in the second edition in 2004. My discussion in the following is based on the latest edition of the Fair Play book from 2015, where Simon has Cesar Torres and Peter Hager as co-authors. In this edition the chapter on sports on campus is revised and updated with new examples, but where the trust of the arguments and the core views are the same as in earlier versions of the chapter. It is still Simon’s voice we hear. I will therefore in the following refer to Simon’s views, but without forgetting the co-authors. I will first present Simon’s views and then follow up with a short presentation of two other contributions to the same theme that have appeared in Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, namely Myles Brand: ‘The role and value of intercollegiate athletics’ from 2006 and Randolph Feezell: ‘Branding the role and value of intercollegiate athletics’ from 2015. 1 I will end with a discussion of some of the central problems that have been raised and how recent contributions to the discussion of knowledge can open new perspectives.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2016). The role of skill in sport. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. 10(3), p. 222–236. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2016.1217917. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Skill is obviously a central part of sports and should therefore be central in sport philosophic studies. My aim in this paper is to try to place skill in a wider context and thus give skill the place it deserves. I will do this by taking up four points. I first try to place the concept of skill in relation to concepts like ability and know how. I argue that ability is something one has as part of a natural endowment, but skill is something one must acquire. ‘Knowing how’ seems to a greater extent to demand a cognitive grasp and is thus more than a skill. My second point is about development of skills toward expertise and the role of thinking and consciousness. When one is exercising a skill does one need to be conscious of what one is doing or can one act like a zombie and perform non-consciously? I argue that expertise demands know how and conscious thinking. My third point is about the role of skills in sport competitions. What we measure in sports are different sporting skills as they are displayed by and through the body. This does not mean that other factors, like motivation, courage, or strategic thinking are not involved. But what we see and what we measure when the sprinter crosses the goal line is not the courage but the skillful body. My fourth point is about skills and normativity. Should sports, and consequently sporting skills, promote ethical and esthetical values? A neutral view would imply that we can accept and admire the skill part of diving in football even if the purpose is bad. A normative view would imply that skill and purpose are intertwined. I here argue that diving skill is diving-specific and thus not morally neutral.

• Ødegård, Lars Tore & Breivik, Gunnar (2015). Hvor moralsk tenker fotballspillere? – en empirisk studie av toppfotball. Etikk i praksis. ISSN 1890-3991. 9(2), p. 33–51. doi: 10.5324/eip.v9i2.1867. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Det er en utbredt oppfatning at det økende prestasjonskravet i toppfotball fører til en svekkelse av moral og fair play-holdninger. Men hvordan tenker toppfotballspillere i forhold til ulike dilemmaer som oppstår på banen, og er det forskjeller mellom toppfotballspillere og spillere på lavere nivå? For å avklare dette gjennomførte vi en empirisk undersøkelse der vi intervjuet spillere og trener i én toppklubb og én breddeklubb. Vi var interessert i to hovedproblemstillinger: 1) Hva tenker fotballspillere på ulike prestasjonsnivå om etikk og moralske dilemmaer i fotball? 2) Hvilke faktorer påvirker spillerne, direkte og indirekte, i deres vurderinger og handlinger? Resultatene fra undersøkelsen viser at det er store forskjeller mellom de to prestasjonsnivåene. Spillerne på breddenivået føler generelt et større ansvar for å opptre ærlig på banen enn hva som er tilfelle på toppnivået. Vi fant 4 spesifikke faktorer i toppfotballen som bidrar til umoralsk opptreden. For det første opplever spillerne en forventning om at de prioriterer resultat foran fair play. For det andre bidrar tilstedeværelsen av supportere på kamper til en slik prioritering. For det tredje vil handlinger som er i strid med fair play signaliseres som akseptable internt i miljøet, selv om de ofte signaliseres som uakseptable overfor media og omverdenen. For det fjerde kan spillere oppleve det som vanskelig å gå i mot trenerens oppfordringer til en pragmatisk og resultatfokusert opptreden.

• Breivik, Gunnar; Buch, Robert & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2015). Performance Orientation and Injury Among Military Cadets: The Mediating Role of Disinhibition. Military Behavioral Health. ISSN 2163-5781. 3(1), p. 29–36. doi: 10.1080/21635781.2014.995248. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study examined the mediating role of disinhibition (sensation seeking) on the positive association between performance goal orientation (achievement motivation) and risk of sustaining injury. Our study comprised 248 cadets from three military academies. In support of our hypotheses, we found a positive relationship between performance goal orientation and risk of sustaining injury and that this relationship was mediated by disinhibition. This finding contributes to the extant achievement goal theory literature by demonstrating a mechanism through which performance orientation relates to the likelihood of sustaining an injury. Theoretical and practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2015). Game theoretic approaches to doping in sport. In Møller, Verner; Waddington, Ivan & Hoberman, John (Ed.), Routledge handbook of drugs and sport. Routledge. ISSN 9780415702782. p. 393–404. doi: 10.4324/9780203795347-32. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2014). Sporting knowledge and the problem of knowing how. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. 41(2), p. 143–162. doi: 10.1080/00948705.2014.911102. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In the Concept of Mind from 1949 Gilbert Ryle (1949/1963) distinguished between knowing how and knowing that. What was Ryle’s basic idea and how is the discussion going on in philosophy today? How can sport philosophy use the idea of knowing how? My goal in this paper is first to bring Ryle and the post-Rylean discussion to light and then show how phenomenology can give some input to the discussion. The article focuses especially on the two main interpretations of knowing how, intellectualism and anti-intellectualism. In the second part of the article I discuss how views from phenomenology and philosophy of mind can enrich and widen our understanding of what knowing how means in relation to sport practices. It is argued that knowing how is not limited to athletic abilities but includes knowledge of how the environing world operates in relation to athletic action.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2014). Sporting knowledge. In Torres, Cesar R. (Eds.), The Bloomsbury companion to the philosophy of sport. Bloomsbury Academic. ISSN 9781408182574. p. 195–211. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar & Hellevik, Ottar (2014). More active and less fit: changes in physical activity in the adult Norwegian population from 1985 to 2011. Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics. ISSN 1743-0437. 17(2), p. 157–175. doi: 10.1080/17430437.2013.790898. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The article describes central aspects of the development of physical activity during leisure time of Norwegian adults, 15 years and above, for the period 1985–2011. The data in the article are from the Norwegian Monitor, which is a series of large surveys with a sample size increasing from 2200 in the first wave in 1985 to around 4000 in the last eight, carried out biannually by Ipsos Markeds og Mediainstituttet. The results show a substantial increase in physical activity from 1985 to 2011. A cohort analysis showed that the increase is largely due to period effects rather generational replacement. Bivariate and multiple regressions revealed that, in addition to social background variables, there was a positive influence on activity levels by variables such as satisfaction with own health and own body, and a BMI below 27.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2013). Zombie-Like Or Superconscious? A Phenomenological And Conceptual Analysis Of Consciousness In Elite Sport. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. 40(1), p. 85–106. doi: 10.1080/00948705.2012.725890. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  According to a view defended by Hubert Dreyfus and others, elite athletes are totally absorbed while they are performing, and they act non-deliberately without any representational or conceptual thinking. By using both conceptual clarification and phenomenological description the article criticizes this view and maintains that various forms of conscious thinking and acting plays an important role before, during and after competitive events. The article describes in phenomenological detail how elite athletes use consciousness in their actions in sport; as planning, attention, thinking, decision, and monitoring of performance. Elite athletes do not act as zombies. It is concluded that qualia and phenomenal consciousness are important phenomena in elite sport.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2012). Dangerous play with the elements: towards a phenomenology of risk sports. In Martínková, Irena & Parry, Jim (Ed.), Phenomenological approaches to sport. Routledge. ISSN 9780415697101. p. 130–146. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2011.602585. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The purpose of this article is to present a phenomenological description of how athletes in specific risk sports explore human interaction with natural elements. Skydivers play with, and surf on, the encountering air while falling towards the ground. Kayakers play on the waves and with the stoppers and currents in the rivers. Climbers are ballerinas of the vertical, using cracks and holds in the cliffs to pull upwards against gravity forces. The theoretical background for the description is found in the phenomenology of Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty. The phenomenology of Husserl focused on the theoretical intentionality of the transcendental ego. With Heidegger the human being's concrete and practical interaction with the environing world moved to the foreground. Heidegger's analyses of ‘equipmentality’ also throw important light on equipmentality in sports and how we deal with tools and equipment in sports. However, in Heidegger's analyses the body resides in the background both as subject and object. The importance of the active body-subject is well documented in the work of Merleau-Ponty, and also Todes. The human being is a bodily ‘being-in-the-world’ and the body is the active medium through which the world is grasped. The body is however also situated and aligned with the fundamental dimensions of the world, with vertical gravity and with horizontal action space. In this article I show in a concrete way how in some sports we use fundamental characteristics of the environing world in a mode of playfulness. In these sports human beings play in an extreme way with fundamental elements of nature. The article thus puts phenomenology to a test. It should be able to move from general characteristics to specific features of our bodily human involvement with the environing world.

• Breivik, Gunnar & Skille, Eivind Åsrum (2012). Telemark Skiing: The Ultimate Norwegian Sport and a Class Phenomenon. European Journal for Sport and Society (EJSS). ISSN 1613-8171. 9(4), p. 369–386. doi: 10.1080/16138171.2012.11687901. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In this paper, we scrutinise telemark skiing with regard to gender, social class and other sociological variables. In so doing, our methodological approach involves applying Bourdieu’s framework to analyse the surveys – one representative nationwide and one from a specific telemark race. National statistics are utilised as an additional source. The main findings are that telemark skiing is dominated by boys, and, moreso than other skiing disciplines and other sports, has a distinct class profile, especially relating to higher education. Telemark skiing can be seen as both a class distinction and a sign of individu-alisation, as it is a rather “new” sport. Analytically, it is suggested that the theses of individualisation and of social inequality are interrelated; it is more likely to be individualised if you belong to a higher social class, because the economic and cultural capital needed to make choices are concentrated in that specific area of social space.

• Hanstad, Dag Vidar; Breivik, Gunnar; Sisjord, Mari Kristin & Skaset, Hans B (2011). Avrunding og fremtidsblikk. In Hanstad, Dag Vidar; Breivik, Gunnar; Sisjord, Mari Kristin & Skaset, Hans B. (Ed.), Norsk Idrett - Indre spenning og ytre press. Akilles forlag. ISSN 9788272862281. p. 525–532. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2011). Dangerous Play With the Elements : Towards a Phenomenology of Risk Sports. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. 5(3), p. 314–330. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2011.602585. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The purpose of this article is to present a phenomenological description of how athletes in specific risk sports explore human interaction with natural elements. Skydivers play with, and surf on, the encountering air while falling towards the ground. Kayakers play on the waves and with the stoppers and currents in the rivers. Climbers are ballerinas of the vertical, using cracks and holds in the cliffs to pull upwards against gravity forces. The theoretical background for the description is found in the phenomenology of Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty. The phenomenology of Husserl focused on the theoretical intentionality of the transcendental ego. With Heidegger the human being's concrete and practical interaction with the environing world moved to the foreground. Heidegger's analyses of equipmentality also throw important light on equipmentality in sports and how we deal with tools and equipment in sports. However, in Heidegger's analyses the body resides in the background both as subject and object. The importance of the active body-subject is well documented in the work of Merleau-Ponty, and also Todes. The human being is a bodily being-in-the-world and the body is the active medium through which the world is grasped. The body is however also situated and aligned with the fundamental dimensions of the world, with vertical gravity and with horizontal action space. In this article I show in a concrete way how in some sports we use fundamental characteristics of the environing world in a mode of playfulness. In these sports human beings play in an extreme way with fundamental elements of nature. The article thus puts phenomenology to a test. It should be able to move from general characteristics to specific features of our bodily human involvement with the environing world.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2011). Norges idrettsforbund som ideologisk maktfaktor og aktivitetskaper. In Hanstad, Dag Vidar; Breivik, Gunnar; Sisjord, Mari Kristin & Skaset, Hans B. (Ed.), Norsk Idrett - Indre spenning og ytre press. Akilles forlag. ISSN 9788272862281. p. 11–32. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2010). Fra egoisme til sjenerøsitet : kan toppidretten reformeres? Etikk i praksis. ISSN 1890-3991. 4(1), p. 39–56. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Artikkelen tar utgangspunkt i den norske idrettsmodellen der topp og bredde hører sammen, og der toppidrettsutøvere uvegerlig blir rollemodeller for barn og unge. Den moderne toppidretten er i økende grad preget av egoistiske holdninger der det dreier seg hele tiden om å skaffe seg fordeler. I denne artikkelen tar jeg opp egoisme, rettferdighet og sjenerøsitet som tre grunnleggende holdninger i idrettskonkurranser og drøfter hvorvidt man med inspirasjon fra sjenerøsitetsidealer og praktiske eksempler kan tenke seg en toppidrett som i større grad bygger på sjenerøsitet. Artikkelen starter med en kort presentasjon av den norske idrettsmodellen og jeg skisserer deretter tre kriterier som alle idrettskonkurranser må oppfylle: 1)spille for å vinne, 2) klare regler som følges, og 3) respekt for konkurrenter. Deretter presenterer jeg egoisme, fairness og sjenerøsitet som tre mulige grunnholdninger, og de implikasjonene de har i en idrettslig sammenheng. Etter en gjennomgang av den grunnleggende egoismen i dagens toppidrett, som infiserer ikke bare utøveren, men også hele systemet rundt utøveren, diskuteres muligheten for å utvikle holdninger basert på sjenerøsitet. Det nevnes tre kilder til inspirasjon; engelsk overklassesport, Nietzsches tanker om den overlegne mester, og Arne Næss? sportspraksis og hans saklighetslære for gode diskusjoner. Deretter presenteres empiriske eksempler på sjenerøsitet og hva en spillteoretisk analyse av ulike holdninger gir som resultat. Jeg konkluderer med at en endring i retning av sjenerøsitet vil gi en rikere toppidrett og et bedre grunnlag for en helhetlig idrettsmodell.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2010). Philosophy of Sport in the Nordic Countries. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. 37(2), p. 194–214. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2010). Can BASEjumping be morally defended? The Ethics of sports : a reader / edited by Mike McNamee. Routledge. ISSN 9780415478618. p. 481–492. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2010). Being-in-the-Void: A Heideggerian Analysis of Skydiving. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. 37(1), p. 29–46. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2010). Trends in adventure sports in a post-modern society. Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics. ISSN 1743-0437. 13(2), p. 260–273. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The essay delineates main trends in the development of adventure sports and looks into possible future scenarios. Since the 1970s there has been an increase in adventure sports of various kinds. The concept 'adventure sport' is used in a wide sense, covering sports that are labelled 'alternative', 'extreme', 'X', 'gravity', 'lifestyle' and 'action sports'. The rise of adventure sport must be seen both on the background of developments inside sports itself and the environing society. Adventure sports have things to offer that are difficult to find in other sports, like strong sensations and risk. They represent an opposition and protest against certain aspects of modern societies, but can also be said to express key ideas in modern and post-modern society such as individualism, technology, self-realization and transcendence. The essay discusses various theories and recent empirical findings that may explain and predict developments of adventure sports in the future.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2010). Philosophical perfectionism : consequences and implications for sport. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. 4(1), p. 87–105. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Ethical theories in sport philosophy tend to focus on interpersonal relations. Little has been said about sport as part of the good life and as experienced from within. This article tries to remedy this by discussing a theory that is fitting for sport, especially elite sport. The idea of perfection has a long tradition in Western philosophy. Aristotle maintains that the good life consists in developing specific human faculties to their fullest. The article discusses Hurka's recent version of Aristotelian perfectionism and relates it to various aspects of, and the good life in, sport. How much time should be spent on sport in relation to other activities, how much should one concentrate on one sport to reach one's best and how should one's efforts be spent over a season? Well-roundedness and concentration are central alternatives for theories of perfection. Similarly some activities are simple whereas other are complex and thIs poses problems for persons that want to maximise their achievements. Whereas Hurka thinks one has obligations to perfect oneself, the author of this article thinks perfection is an attractive choice but no obligation.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2009). Idrett og etikk : en oversikt over hovedtemaer i den idrettsfilosofiske diskusjon 1980-2007. Tidsskrift for teologi og kirke. ISSN 0040-7194. 2009(1), p. 2–21. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Sport has become important in modern societies, both mass sport as well as elite sport. Especially elite sport raises ethical dilemmas that reach far beyond sport. The most thorough scholarly discussion of sport ethics has taken place among sport philosophers. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport (JPS) has been the leading international referee journal in the field of sport ethics. The article gives an overview over some of the main sport ethical discussions in JPS in the period 1980¿2007. Some of the main positions and arguments related to themes such as sport and values, «sportsmanship», «fair play», and doping are portrayed. One of the goals of the article is to invite theologians to take part in the sport ethical discussion.

• Breivik, Gunnar & Steen-Johnsen, Kari (2009). Siste sats : noen avsluttende bemerkninger. In Neumann, Iver Brynild & Steen-Johnsen, Kari (Ed.), Meningen med idretten. Unipub forlag. ISSN 9788274774483. p. 273–281. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2009). Mellom væren og intet : å hoppe fallskjerm med Heidegger. In Neumann, Iver Brynild & Steen-Johnsen, Kari (Ed.), Meningen med idretten. Unipub forlag. ISSN 9788274774483. p. 115–135. Full text in Research Archive
• Rafoss, Kolbjørn & Breivik, Gunnar (2009). Anleggsbruk i befolkningen : en studie av anleggstyper, aktivitetsprofiler og endring. In Rafoss, Kolbjørn & Tangen, Jan Ove (Ed.), Kampen om idrettsanleggene : planlegging, politikk og bruk. Fagbokforlaget. ISSN 9788245007343. p. 53–79. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar; Hanstad, Dag Vidar & Loland, Sigmund (2009). Attitudes towards use of performance-enhancing substances and body modification techniques : a comparison between elite athletes and the general population. Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics. ISSN 1743-0437. 12(6), p. 737–754. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Medical and technological developments open up new possibilities for modifying the body and enhancing performance in various areas of life. This study compares attitudes among Norwegian elite athletes (n = 234) with attitudes in the general population (n = 428). Whereas vitamins, nutritional supplements and hypoxic rooms were accepted by more than 65% of both athletes and population the rejection of EPO, anabolic steroids and amphetamines were similarly clear in both groups. The athletes were in general more reluctant to use performance enhancement means and body modification techniques than the general population. A significantly higher percentage of the population than the athletes accepted a) means to avoid memory failure in old age (61.6 versus 43.2, sig. 0.000), b) means to avoid decrease in physical fitness among old people (48.6 versus 34.7, sig. 0.005), c) liposuction (30.1 versus 12.4, sig. 0.000), d) surgery for obesity (15.3 versus 9.4, sig. 0.035), e) silicon implants (9.9 versus 5.1, sig. 0.001). The athletes were significantly more satisfied with their bodies than the population (sig. 0.000). Males were more positive about the use of performance enhancement means, whereas females were more positive about body modification techniques. Males were significantly more positive about the use of a) means that increase strength and endurance (sig. 0.002, and b) means that increase sexual performance (sig 0.000). Females were significantly more positive than males about the use of liposuction (sig. 0.000), plastic surgery on the face (sig. 0.013), surgery to combat obesity (sig. 0.000) and silicon implants (sig. 0.000).

• Breivik, Gunnar (2008). Kropp, bevegelse og energi i samfunnet. In Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McD (Ed.), Kropp, bevegelse og energi : i den grunnleggende soldatutdanningen. Universitetsforlaget. ISSN 9788215012445. p. 139–162. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2008). Bodily movement : the fundamental dimensions. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. 2(3), p. 337–352. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Bodily movement has become an interesting topic in recent philosophy, both in analytic and phenomenological versions. Philosophy from Descartes to Kant defined the human being as a mental subject in a material body. This mechanistic attitude toward the body sill lingers on in many studies of motor learning and control. The article shows how alternative philosophical views can give a better understanding of bodily movement. The article starts with Heidegger's contribution to overcoming the subject-object dichotomy and his new understanding of the primacy of the practical involvement with the surrounding world. heidegger, however, in many ways neglected the role of the human body. Merleau-Pontytook a huge step forwardwhen he focused on the bodily intentionality of our interaction with the world. The next step was taken by Samuel Todes who presented a better understanding of how we are bodily oriented in space. After having seen how the body is oriented outwards towards the environment it is proper that the final part of article goes inward toward the role of bodily awareness and the role of proprioception in human movement. The goal of the presentation is to contribute to a better understanding of what goes on in sport. The article therefore uses examples from sport, especially football, to show the relevance of the new insights for sport studies.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2007). Can BASEjumping be morally defended? Philosophy, risk and adventure sports / edited by Mike McNamee. Routledge. p. 168–185. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2007). The quest for excitement and the safe society, Philosophy, risk and adventure sports / edited by Mike McNamee. Routledge. p. 11–24. Full text in Research Archive
• Gilberg, Runar; Breivik, Gunnar & Loland, Sigmund (2007). Anti-doping in sport : the Norwegian perspective, Doping in sport : global ethical issues / edited by Angela J. Schneider and Fan Hang. Routledge. p. 158–177. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2007). Skillful coping in everyday life and in sport: A critical examination of the views of Heidegger and Dreyfus. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. 34(2), p. 116–134. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2007). Doping games in elite sport, Sportpadagogik. Limpert Verlag. p. 205–214. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2007). Idrettens utvikling og historie : speilbilde eller motkultur? Idrettens dilemmaer : rapport fra forskningsprogrammet "Idrett, samfunn og frivillig organisering". Akilles forlag. p. 11–27. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2007). Å være i bevegelse : Gunnar Breivik i samtale med Nils Faarlund, Veglederen : et festskrift til Nils Faarlund / red. Anders McD Sookermany og Jørgen W. Eriksen. Aschehoug & Co. p. 259–267. Full text in Research Archive

View all works in NVA

• Thelle, Dag Steinar; Breivik, Gunnar; Enebakk, Vidar; Skolbekken, John-Arne & Teigen, Karl Halvor (2018). På den usikre siden - risiko som forestilling, atferd og rettesnor (9788213030304) | Akademika Bokhandel. Kopinor. ISBN 9788213030304. 220 p. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hva er risiko? Hvem tar risiko? Hvordan oppfatter vi risiko? Hva vil det si at vi er blitt et samfunn som fokuserer på risiko? I denne tverrvitenskapelige og allment rettede boken viser forfatterne oss risikobegrepet fra mange sider - her behandles medisinsk risiko, hva risiko er statistisk sett, ulike typer risikoadferd og oppfatninger av risiko slik det fordeler seg mellom ulike typer mennesker.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2017). Skills, Knowledge and Expertise in Sport. Routledge. ISBN 9781138559677. 128 p. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2013). Jakten på et bedre liv : fysisk aktivitet i den norske befolkning 1985-2011. Universitetsforlaget. ISBN 9788215021645. 279 p. Full text in Research Archive
• Rafoss, Kolbjørn & Breivik, Gunnar (2012). Idrett og anlegg i endring: Oppslutning om idrettsaktiviteter og bruk av idrettsanlegg i den norske befolkningen. Akilles forlag. ISBN 9788272862311. 189 p. Full text in Research Archive
• Hanstad, Dag Vidar; Breivik, Gunnar; Sisjord, Mari Kristin & Skaset, Hans B. (2011). Norsk Idrett - Indre spenning og ytre press. Akilles forlag. ISBN 9788272862281. 539 p. Full text in Research Archive

View all works in NVA

• Breivik, Gunnar (2024). Philosophy of Sport in the Nordic Countries. In Marttinen, Risto & Girginov, Vassil (Ed.), Routledge Resources Online - Sport Studies. Routledge. ISSN 9780367766924. doi: 10.4324/9780367766924-RESS65-1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Philosophy of sport developed as an academic discipline in the early 1970s. In Norway sport philosophy became a topic at Norwegian School of Sport Sciences in 1975. Norway took a leading role among the Nordic countries and had in the 1990s two full-time professors in sport philosophy, teaching at all levels and several doctoral students. While Gunnar Breivik had a background in phenomenology and Continental philosophy. Sigmund Loland concentrated more on sport ethics and the idea of fair play in sport. Breivik has used formal game theoretical tools to analyse doping in sport and has been interested in key philosophical themes such as the ontology and epistemology of sport, the role of skill and consciousness. Loland has contributed to discussions of doping, genetics and enhancement, epistemology, and the role of technology in sport. A common theme for Breivik and Loland has been sport and deep ecology, with inspiration from the Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss. In Sweden, sport philosophy lacked a stable institutional anchoring and was dependent upon interests from general philosophers such as Torbjörn Tännsjö and Claudio Tamburrini. These two sport philosophers have criticised elite sport for its worship of sport heroes and thus its fascistoid tendencies. Tamburrini has argued for more liberal attitudes to doping, including genetic doping. More recently, Kutte Jönsson and the social scientific milieu in sport studies at Malmö University have been central. In Denmark, the leading group is at Aaarhus University, with a special focus on the problem of doping and anti-doping in sport. Rasmus Bysted Møller has criticised the idea that sport is imbued with moral qualities and maintains that it instead fosters egoism. Verner Møller and Ask Vest Kristensen have critically examined the role and legitimacy of the anti-doping regime in sport. Finland has had few contributions to sport philosophy, except for the theologian Mikael Lindfelt at Aabo Academy, who has written on the role of elite athletes in present society

• Breivik, Gunnar (2023). Bør russiske utøvere utestenges fra internasjonale idrettskonkurranser? Full text in Research Archive
• Krein, Kevin; Parry, Jim; Martínková, Irena; Breivik, Gunnar & Humphreys, Rebekah (2022). Book Symposium: Kevin Krein’s Philosophy and Nature Sports. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2022.2117842. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This is a book symposium on Kevin Krein’s Philosophy and Nature Sports. Gunnar Breivik, Jim Parry and Irena Martínková, and Rebekah Humphreys provide critical commentary on the text. The critical comments are followed by a response from Krein. The discussion covers a broad range of topics. These include the definition of “sport,” comparisons between nature sports and friluftsliv, the role of risk in nature sports, the experience of flow and the sublime in nature sports, and the understanding of nature. Krein argues, as he does in the book and elsewhere, that nature sports provide a framework that facilitates intimate and meaningful interactions with nature. He argues further that the discussion included here shows how deeply our understanding of nature, and our understanding of nature sports, influence both our experiences within those sports and our broader experience of the world.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2022). Hvordan kan idretten bli mer bærekraftig? lokalavisen fedrelandsvennen. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2022). Fotball-VM: De tre alternativene. lokalavisen fedrelandsvennen. Full text in Research Archive
• Berntsen, Sveinung & Breivik, Gunnar (2021). Dette er Vitensporten. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar & Berntsen, Sveinung (2021). Dette er Vitensporten. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2021). Idrett og sport – er det det samme? Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2021). Idrett og sport – er det det samme? Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar & Berntsen, Sveinung (2021). Dette er Vitensporten. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2021). Idrett og sport – er det det samme? Full text in Research Archive
• Aggerholm, Kenneth & Breivik, Gunnar (2019). Being, Having and Belonging: Values and Ways of Engaging in Sport. Full text in Research Archive
• Birch, Jens; Moe, Vegard Fusche & Breivik, Gunnar (2018). Knowledge, Consciousness, and Sporting Skills. Full text in Research Archive
• Sookermany, Anders McDonald; Breivik, Gunnar & Sand, Trond Svela (2017). Learning under Risk in Military and Society: A New Learning Model for New Challenges. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  If there’s anything history has shown, from a global perspective, it is that societal and political changes have a profound impact on the defense and security environment instigating momentous adjustments to how defense and security agencies, like the military, are both prepared and carry out their day-to-day operations. Likewise, the last couple of decades have shown that societal and political changes with deep impact to the defense and security sector come in an increasingly faster pace and, thus, seem to be relatively short lived. More so, the implication of societal and political change on the defense and security environment is hard to predict as both the resent Brexit and the US presidential election are vivid examples of – what are and will be the impact, and what are the defense and security agencies to prepare for or to adjust to and how are they to do it. Accordingly, a pivotal concept in concert to change, as in preparation and adjustment to new challenges, is learning. Societal and political change that depict a new way of doing implies that agents of the old outmoded policy need to adjust their modus operandi, hence they need to change, implying they need to learn how to operate within the new policy so as to develop the ability to meet the new challenges and, thus, achieve the new goals. Still, how is learning to be conducted, let alone understood in a learning model, if we do not know what to learn, as if the future outcome of societal and political change is unpredictable in the present? Preparing for the unknown, unforeseen or unpredictable is by definition a risky venture, for how are we to know that what we are investing our effort in will pay off in the unpredictable future. Thus, an investigation into risk as a dimension in connection to learning seems to be a relevant and interesting pathway towards the theme of the ERGOMAS 2017: Military and Society: New Models New Challenges. Accordingly, this paper will focus on how we can conceptualize an understanding of Learning as a phenomenon in relation to risk as an expression of the known-unknown dichotomy, so as to develop a working tool for those who study the likes of learning when dealing with military change. Hopefully, increased knowledge in this field will enlighten those responsible for adjusting military policy to new challenges as consequence of new societal and political order. Accordingly, the presentation will utilize a pedagogical-philosophical approach to how we can conceptualize learning in a means-end perspective. For, when we talk of learning we essentially talk of one of two different aspects of learning. Either we talk of the process of learning something, or we talk of learning as an outcome of something. More so, basically, when we deal with the process of learning we talk of learning as some kind of developmental procedure or activity like for instance facilitated programs and activities (education, training, practice, etc.), applied methods (inductive, deductive, abductive, etc.), participation (socialization, adaptation, etc.) and so on. Whilst, dealing with learning as an outcome we view learning as some kind of result, effect or consequence like for instance acquiring of new knowledge, change in behavior, social interaction and so on. If we then add that both aspects of means and ends could be understood as being either known or unknown to those involved in the learning process we end up with a concept of learning that could be divided into four quadrants each displaying some distinct features. It is these four quadrants that will form a new learning model for new challenges and, thus, work as an epistemological base for a discussion of learning under risk in military and society.

• Breivik, Gunnar; Sand, Trond Svela & Sookermany, Anders McDonald (2017). How willing are people to take risks? A study of various types of risk-taking in the Norwegian population. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Military operations include various forms of risk-taking. Hence, identifying and understanding risk-taking attitudes and behaviors of potential young recruits as well as the acceptance of risk-taking in the general population seems valuable when to recruit military personnel for different types of military operations home and abroad. This paper is based on an investigation of a representative sample of the adult Norwegian population, aged 15 years and above (n=1000). The investigation looked at how risk-taking is related to demographic background and to personality factors and also focused on how risk-taking is expressed in specific risky attitudes and behaviors, including willingness to take part in dangerous military operations abroad. The study looked at positive as well as negative aspects of risk and included social, intellectual, financial, achievement-related, political, physical, ethical and existential risk-taking dimensions. The results showed that in general people are risk-averse towards financial, physical, ethical and existential risk dimensions but more positive towards social, intellectual, achievement-related and political forms of risk. Younger people, males, and people with specific personality profiles, are in general more willing to take risks. As many as 35,5 percent of young people between 15 and 24 years of age were willing to take part in dangerous military operations abroad, which is surprisingly high for a peaceful welfare society like Norway. The study is part of a project called Learning under Risk, which aims to better understand the role of risk-taking in learning before, during and after military operations. Keywords: Risk-taking, attitudes and behaviors, Norwegian population, civil-military relation

• Breivik, Gunnar; Sand, Trond Svela & Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald (2016). Attitudes and Behaviors among Soldiers in Dangerous Contexts: A Review of Literature with a Special Focus on Risk-taking and Sensation seeking. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The article is based on a literature review of attitudes and behaviors in dangerous military contexts. Literature was gathered through an extensive search procedure in academic databases by keywords in different combinations. The first part of the article presents the main bibliographic findings. Altogether 226 articles were grouped into categories relating to main topic, type of inquiry, type of publication, institutional affiliation and geographic area. The largest thematic categories were “Combat zone experiences”, “Performance under pressure”, “Risk-taking”, “Leadership”; and “Combat motivation”. Among personality variables “Sensation seeking” had attracted most interest. The second and largest part of the article presents a review of literature related to the two central thematic categories “risk-taking” and “sensation seeking”. Since warfare and military conflicts are dangerous pursuits one could have imagined a lot of empirical research about risk-taking and sensation seeking in the military. We have found this not to be the case. The research is small in volume and also scattered when it comes to use of theories, methods and samples of military personnel. In general, there seems to be few clear research paradigms. The results of the empirical studies show that there are adaptive as well as non-adaptive forms of risk-taking in relation to military situations. Similarly military personnel scoring high on sensation seeking have certain advantages, for instance dealing with stress and risk, but may also cause problems of various kinds. The article ends with pointing out implications for research and for practice. Keywords: military, soldiers, danger, risk-taking, sensation seeking

• Sand, Trond Svela; Breivik, Gunnar & Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald (2016). Gender and risk-taking attitudes in the Norwegian population: What about female conscription? Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The presence of risk is a crucial and unavoidable feature of many military contexts and soldiers have to be both willing and able to not only encounter risk and uncertainty, but also master it. Correspondingly, the military system is part of the society at large and the cultural and social norms and values that are in place set limits and provide frames for how the military system operates. This influences both the attitudes toward risk among young soldiers and the normative frames and conditions for the military system. Norway is one of the few NATO countries left with compulsory military service, and the only one with female conscription (introduced in 2015). It is therefore of great interest to have information about the general attitudes towards risk and risk-taking in the various parts of the population, especially among the young women and men. Previous studies have indicated that men in general and young men in particular are more willing to take risks than their female counterparts, but risk is often measured in only one dimension or the studies have been carried out in relatively small samples groups with rather homogenous characteristics. Hence, the purpose of this paper is to examine risk-taking attitudes in the Norwegian population and to discuss potential implications for the Armed Forces with respect to the introduction of female conscription. The results presented are from a representative population study (n = 1.000) conducted by structured telephone interviews in February 2015. The study aimed to uncover baseline data on socio-demographic variables, physical activity practices, affiliation with the armed forces, and risk-taking attitudes in eight different domains: physical, political/military, social, intellectual, performance, financial, ethical/moral. The study is a part of a larger research project – Learning under Risk (LuR) – which is launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its meaning for military performance.

• Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald; Breivik, Gunnar & Sand, Trond Svela (2016). Risk as a Dimension in Military Learning. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Exposure to that which we understand to be risky is a crucial experience for many soldiers. Thus, knowledge about how soldiers perceive and experience risk in a military context seems to be of utmost importance and therefore should be recognized in the process of acquiring military skills so as to better prepare soldiers and their units for future assignments. Still, the impression is that knowledge about risk as a dimension in military learning has not received enough attention in neither the military community nor the scholarly debate on risk-taking attitudes and behaviors among military personnel. Thus, the research-program “Learning under risk” (LuR) has been launched to describe, understand and explain the risk dimension in soldiers’ learning before, during and after participation in military operations. This presentation will focus on how we can conceptualize an understanding of Learning as a phenomenon in relation to risk so as to develop a working tool for those who study the likes of learning when dealing with risk in general and our LuR research-program in particularly. Hopefully, increased knowledge in this field may be used to improve military organizations’ training and performance culture, and potentially increase their operational capability. Accordingly, the presentation will utilize a pedagogical-philosophical approach to how we can conceptualize learning in a means-end perspective. For, when we talk of learning we essentially talk of one of two different aspects of learning. Either we talk of the process of learning something, or we talk of learning as an outcome of something. More so, basically, when we deal with the process of learning we talk of learning as some kind of developmental procedure or activity like for instance facilitated programs and activities (education, training, practice, etc.), applied methods (inductive, deductive, abductive, etc.), participation (socialization, adaptation, etc.) and so on. Whilst, dealing with learning as an outcome we view learning as some kind of result, effect or consequence like for instance acquiring of new knowledge, change in behavior, social interaction and so on. If we then add that both aspects of means and ends could be understood as being either known or unknown to those involved in the learning process we end up with a concept of learning that could be divided into four quadrants each displaying some distinct features. It is these four quadrants that will form an epistemological bases for a discussion of learning in relation to risk.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2016). Skills, knowledge and expertise in sport. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. 10(3), p. 217–221. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2016.1218922. Full text in Research Archive
• Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald; Sand, Trond Svela & Breivik, Gunnar (2015). The Meaning of Risk in Soldiers’ Learning Before, During and After Military Operations. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The purpose of this panel is to present some central ideas and research with respect to the meaning of risk in soldiers’ learning before, during and after military operations. The panel has its origin in a newly started project at the Norwegian Defence University College entitled “Learning under risk” (LuR). Exposure to different types of risk environments is a crucial experience for many soldiers. Knowledge about how soldiers experience different types of risk in military situations is of utmost importance and should be transferred to training and preparation to better prepare military personnel for future assignments. However, the impression is that knowledge about different types of risk, physical, intellectual, social, ethical etc., and the positive and negative aspects of risks and risk-taking have not received enough attention in the military community. Increased knowledge in this field may be used to improve military organizations’ training- and performance culture and potentially increase their operational capability. Thus, the overall scope of this panel is to increase the knowledge about risk and its positive and negative meaning for military performance. In the initial stage of the LuR-project it has been crucial to get an overview of research related to soldiers’ risk-taking attitudes and behaviors in military contexts. This work has been conducted through an extensive search procedure in academic databases and is to be published as a research bibliography entitled “Military Personnel in Dangerous Contexts: Risk-taking Attitudes and Behaviors“ during the spring of 2015. The presented panel is made up of invited scholars on the bases of analyses made in the making of the bibliography. More so, the panel is comprised of scholars whose research on traits of risk in military contexts came out as being both relevant for the LuR-project and at the same time displays the field’s interdisciplinary scope. Accordingly, the papers are dealing with risk using both qualitative and quantitative method, covering a review of the research literature, phenomenological interviews with soldiers about their experiences of hand-to-hand combat, surveys of the role of personality including dimensions of operational stress and forms of unacceptable risk taking with small arms, sensation seeking and need for structure, and risk-taking attitudes in both military and civilian populations. For further details, please find abstracts for each paper attached to this panel proposal. However, we would like to stress that although each paper represents different facets of risk and risk-taking among soldiers they are linked together by including a discussion of the research and findings and its potential consequences for learning among military personnel.

• Sand, Trond Svela; Breivik, Gunnar & Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald (2015). Investigating risk and risk-taking attitudes in the Armed Forces: A baseline study in the Norwegian population. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The purpose of this paper is to present results from a study of risk-taking attitudes in the Norwegian population. The military system is part of a larger society and the cultural and social norms and values of the society set limits and provide frames for how the military system operates. The Norwegian welfare society has shown during the last decades gradually less tolerance for risks and risk-taking and more focus on control and safety. This influences both the attitudes toward risk among young soldiers and the normative frames and conditions for the military system. It is therefore of great interest for the military system and its various parts to have information about the general developments of attitudes towards risk and risk-taking in the various parts of the population, especially the young people. The study is a part of a larger research project – “Learning under risk” (LuR) – which is launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its meaning for military performance. The study was conducted by telephone interviews with a representative sample from the Norwegian population and aimed to uncover baseline data on socio-demographic variables, physical activity practices, affiliation with the armed forces, and risk-taking attitudes in different domains (physical, political/military, social, intellectual, performance, economical, ethical/moral). The findings are discussed in relation to their potential relevance for the Norwegian Armed Forces in general, with a particular focus on consequences for recruitment strategies and training of personnel.

• Breivik, Gunnar; Sand, Trond Svela & Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald (2015). Risk-taking Attitudes and Behaviors among Soldiers in Dangerous Contexts: A Literature review. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The purpose of this paper is to present an overview of research related to risk taking attitudes and behaviors in military contexts. The presentation is part of a larger project at the Norwegian defense University College – “Learning under Risk” – which is launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its meaning for military performance. To get an overview of previous research in this field is needed to uncover current knowledge status. The review is based on literature gathered through an extensive search procedure in academic databases by key words in different combinations (270 search terms altogether) followed by a review of reference lists and searches in Google scholar. In this article the focus will be on literature found under two headings; sensation seeking and risk-taking. The main findings will be analyzed and discussed as well as suggestions for future research in the area.

• Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald; Sand, Trond Svela & Breivik, Gunnar (2015). Risk-Taking Attitudes and Behaviors among Military Personnel in Dangerous Contexts - A Categorized Research Bibliography. Moving soldiers - Soldaten i bevegelse. ISSN 1891-8751. 4(1), p. 12–52. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  THE PURPOSE OF this edition of Moving Soldiers is to present a categorized overview of research related to risk-taking attitudes and behaviors in military contexts. The bibliography is grounded in a larger project – “Learning under Risk” – which has been launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its meaning for military performance. In order to gain an overview of previous research in this field, it is necessary to uncover the current knowledge status. Thus, what is required is a collection of references to journal articles, books and chapters in books, and Ph.D dissertations that deal with soldiers’ experiences and attitudes towards risk and risk-taking contexts. The gathering of references has been carried out by searching academic databases by keywords in different combinations (270 search terms altogether), followed by a review of reference lists and searches in Google Scholar. The procedure uncovered 226 references found to be relevant for this bibliography, and which have been categorized into the following 12 categories: Combat motivation; Combat zone experience; Fear and courage; On killing; Leadership; Life threat; Performance under pressure; Post traumatic growth; Risk-taking; Sensation seeking; Warrior ethos; Well-being. The findings are discussed with a view to relevance for the project “Learning under Risk”.

• Breivik, Gunnar; Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald & Sand, Trond Svela (2015). Risk-taking attitudes in the Norwegian population: Any consequences for the Armed Forces? Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The purpose of this paper is to present results from a study of risk-taking attitudes in the Norwegian population. The military system is part of a larger society and the cultural and social norms and values of the society set limits and provide frames for how the military system operates. The Norwegian welfare society has during the last decades shown gradually less tolerance for risks and risk-taking and more focus on control and safety. This influences both the attitudes toward risk among young soldiers and the normative frames and conditions for the military system. It is therefore of great interest for the military system and its various parts to have information about the general developments of attitudes towards risk and risk-taking in the various parts of the population, especially the young people. The study is a part of a larger research project – “Learning under risk” – which is launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its meaning for military performance. The study will be conducted by telephone interviews with a representative sample from the Norwegian population and aims to uncover baseline data on socio-demographic variables, physical activity practices, affiliation with the armed forces, and risk-taking attitudes in different areas (physical, political/military, social, intellectual, performance, economical, ethical/moral). The findings will be discussed in relation to their potential relevance for the Norwegian Armed Forces in general, with a particular focus on consequences for recruitment strategies and training of personnel. The results from the population study will further be used as reference tool for future studies on risk-taking attitudes among different groups in the Norwegian Armed Forces.

• Sand, Trond Svela; Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald & Breivik, Gunnar (2015). Research on Military Personnel in Dangerous Contexts: Risk-taking Attitudes and Behaviors. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The purpose of this paper is to present a categorized overview of research related to risk-taking attitudes and behaviors in military contexts. The presentation is a part of a larger project – “Learning under risk” – which is launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its meaning for military performance. To get an overview of previous research in this field is therefore needed to uncover current knowledge status. Thus, collecting references to journal articles, books and chapter in books, and Ph.D dissertations that deals with soldiers’ experiences and attitudes towards risk and risk-taking contexts is wanted. The gathering of references has been carried out by searching academic databases by keywords in different combinations (270 search terms altogether) followed by review of reference lists and searches in Google Scholar. Relevant references have been selected by reading abstracts. The gathered references has been categorized and analyzed, and the findings will be discussed with respect to relevance for the project “Learning under risk”.

• Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald; Breivik, Gunnar & Sand, Trond Svela (2015). Learning under risk: A project studying soldiers’ learning before, during and after military operations. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The purpose of this paper is to present some central ideas and findings from an ongoing research project, “Learning under risk”. Exposure to different types of risky environments is a crucial experience for many soldiers. Knowledge about how soldiers experience different types of risk in military situations is of utmost importance and should be transferred to training and preparation to better prepare personnel for future assignments. However, the impression is that knowledge about different types of risk, both physical, mental, social and so on, and the positive and negative aspects of risks and risk-taking has not received enough attention in the military community. Thus, the project “Learning under risk” has been launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its positive and negative meaning for military performance. Increased knowledge in this field may be used to improve military organizations’ training- and performance culture and potentially increase their operational capability. The overall aim of the project is to describe, understand and explain the risk dimension in soldiers’ learning before, during and after participation in military operations. We will present some theoretical considerations with respect to risk and risk taking in general, followed by a discussion of some central findings from the project and end by a discussion of how soldiers can be better equipped to learn and cope in risky military situations.

• Breivik, Gunnar & Sandseter, Ellen Beate Hansen (2014). Vi må akseptere småskader. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2012). Kamp om värden :(Heather L. Reid Athletics and Philosophy in the Ancient World: Contests of Virtue). Idrottsforum.org - Nordic Sport Studies Forum. Full text in Research Archive
• Skille, Eivind Åsrum & Breivik, Gunnar (2011). Telemark skiing: the ultimate Norwegian sport and a class phenomenon. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2011). Fysisk aktivitet, psykisk helse og det gode liv, Hvordan henger de sammen? Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2011). Vestkysten eller døden. Hva kan Nansen lære oss om utfordring, stress og psykisk helse? Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar & Morstad, Marius (2011). The art of teaching special force soldiers the necessary skills to operate in vertical and risky terrain. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2011). Developing Modern Soldiers: A Critical View on Military Education, Training and Learning. Full text in Research Archive
• Thoren, Anne-Karine Halvorsen; Breivik, Gunnar & Rafoss, Kolbjørn (2011). Hvordan skal Staten bruke penger på fysisk aktivitet? Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2011). Idrettsillusjonen. Aftenposten (morgenutg. : trykt utg.). ISSN 0804-3116. p. 5–5. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2009). Friluftsliv and outdoor education - the deep ecological approach. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The purpose of the paper is to present and discuss the idea of ?friluftsliv? or outdoor life by focusing on Arne Næss, his ideas about deep ecology and the consequences these ideas have for outdoor education. The Norwegian word ?friluftsliv? was coined by among others, Henrik Ibsen, and means literally ?life in the open air?. But the word is connected to certain deeper ideas and ideals (Reed & Rothenberg, 1993). Friluftsliv involves certain values, a certain ideology of being outdoors with simple means, being free and close to nature and with a deep respect for the wilderness. Nature is thus considered a central part of the Norwegian national identity (Breivik, 1989; Reed & Rothenberg, 1993). In the beginning of the 20th century and up towards the 1960s sport and friluftsliv seemed to flourish side by side. But old tensions surfaced in the 1960s and 1970s when elite sport developed into professional show sport. Leading friluftsliv ideologists, like Faarlund and Kvaløy Sætereng, felt that friluftsliv and sport had to split completely and that friluftsliv was the only acceptable physical culture from an ecological point of view (Faarlund, 1993; Kvaløy Sætereng, 1993). In the 1960s and 1970s study programs in friluftsliv were developed at various university colleges in Norway. The theoretical foundation for the new area of study was sought in the new ecological disciplines and especially ?deep ecology?. It was Arne Næss (1912-2009) who in 1973 coined the term ?deep ecology? (Næss, 1973). Later he developed his own systematic philosophical version of deep ecology called ?ecosophy T? (Næss, 1990) From an ecophilosophical platform he sketched how friluftsliv should be experienced and practiced (Næss, 1994). The paper will be divided into five sections. The first section gives a short presentation of Arne Næss, his life and philosophy. The second section examines relevant aspects of ecosophy T, especially the ideas of ?self-realization? and of ?increasing identification with all beings?. In the third section Arne Næss? thoughts on outdoor life are presented and discussed, especially the ideas of ?hilaritas? and ?manysidedness?. The last section will give examples of Arne Næss? own practice and discuss implications of his philosophy for outdoor education. References Breivik, G. (1989) ?F.Nansen and the Norwegian outdoor life tradition.? Scand. J. Sports Sci. 11(1):9-14 Faarlund,N. (1993) ?A Way Home?. In: Reed & Rothenberg (1993:157-169) Kvaløy Sætereng, S.(1993) ?Complexity and Time: Breaking the Pyramid?s Reign?. In Reed & Rothenberg (1993:116-146) Næss, A. (1973) ?The shallow and the deep, long-range ecology movements? Inquiry 16, 95-100 Næss, A. (1990) Ecology, Community and Lifestyle. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Næss, A. (1994) ?Notes on the Philosophy of Sport?. Manuscript. Reed, P. & Rothenberg, D.(eds.) (1993) Wisdom in the Open Air. University of Minnesota Press. Minneapolis.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2009). Can sport become ecologically sound? Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The debate about global warming has brought new fuel to the discussion of an environmentally sound lifestyle and a sustainable development of human societies. Sport is certainly a part of the problem and also of the solution, since ?with few exceptions, sport as it is practiced is not sustainable? (Chernushenko, 1994:4). The winter Olympic Games at Lillehammer 1994 and the summer Olympics in Sydney 2000 focused on ?green ideals?, but without much lasting effects. The goal of the presentation is to show how environmental concerns need to be addressed in the future. I will raise the following questions: 1) Gregory Bateson (1973) thought that the ecological crisis was due to three root causes: a) technological progress, b) population increase, c) hubris: man against nature. The systemic interaction of these three factors constitutes the threat to a sustainable future. How is modern sport involved in this interaction? 2) Modern sport is built on a combination of three ideas: a) competition, b) progress, c) ethical values, like fair play. International elite sport has seen a decrease in ethical focus and an increase in hard competition and quest for records. Supported by advanced technology and economic growth elite sport, according to some, has become the spearhead of a reckless consumer culture that is going in the opposite direction of sustainability. Other would succinctly respond that the concept of ?sport? includes not only elite sport but also more sustainable sports like jogging, hiking, eastern martial arts, fitness, lifestyle sport. The movement culture has many faces and not all of them are environmentally ugly. I will present examples of this diversity. 3) Arne Næss (1973) distinguished between shallow and deep ecology. Without doubt shallow ecology focusing on a mild redressing and ecological haul over of present consumer culture can be useful for most sports. Sport is tapping ecological resources and polluting the environment in many ways (travel, equipment, facilities). How could sport organizations contribute to a ?greening of sports? in all these areas? 4) A more radical solution would be to go to the roots of the problem and develop a form of sport that was built on ?richness in ends, simpleness in means? (Næss, 1990). Such sports would not focus on relentless record-setting, winning at all costs and with the most cutting-edge equipment. The question is whether the deep ecological attitude is a realistic one. How far can ?homo oecologicus? (Seewald, Kronbichler, Groessing, 1998) be developed in sport settings? References Bateson, G. (1973) Steps to an Ecology of Mind. St. Albans: Paladin. Chernushenko, D (1994) Greening our Games. Ottawa: Centurion. Næss, A. (1973) ?The shallow and the deep, long-range ecology movements? Inquiry 16, 95-100 Næss, A. (1990) Ecology, Community and Lifestyle. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Seewald, F., Kronbichler, E. and S. Groessing (1998) Sportökologie. Wiesbaden: Limpert Verlag.

• Breivik, Gunnar (2007). Modernitet, diskontinuitet og utfordringspedagogikk. Kroppsøving. ISSN 0333-0141. 57(5), p. 10–13. Full text in Research Archive
• Rafoss, Kolbjørn & Breivik, Gunnar (2007). Anleggstrender og anleggsbruk. Idrettsanlegg. ISSN 0802-3026. 20(4), p. 34–36. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Deltakelse i idrett og fysisk aktivitet i befolkningen har blitt mer differensiert siden 90-tallet. Det differensierte idrettsbildet karakteriseres ved nye aktiviteter, flere organisasjoner, varierte organisasjonsmåter og bruk av nye rom og arenaer

• Breivik, Gunnar (2007). Konkurranse og samarbeid - kan det forenes? Full text in Research Archive
• Rafoss, Kolbjørn & Breivik, Gunnar (2012). Fysisk aktivitet; omfang, tilrettelegging og sosial ulikhet – en revisjon. Helsedirektoratet. Full text in Research Archive
• Thoren, Anne-Karine Halvorsen; Sand, Trond Svela; Breivik, Gunnar; Rafoss, Kolbjørn; Tangen, Jan Ove & Bergaust, Tore Edvard [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2011). Fysisk aktivitet; omfang, tilrettelegging og sosial ulikhet. Helsedirektoratet/ Høgskolen i Finnmark. ISSN 9788279381624. Full text in Research Archive
• Rafoss, Kolbjørn; Breivik, Gunnar; Tangen, Jan Ove & Thorén, Kine Halvorsen (2011). Fysisk aktivitet; omfang, tilrettelegging og sosial ulikhet. UiT Norges arktiske universitet. ISSN 9788279381624. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Gunnar (2009). Seleksjon og utvelgelse til militær profesjonsutdanning. Norges idrettshøgskole. Full text in Research Archive

View all works in NVA